These latest protests in Iran build on nearly a decade of recurring unrest driven by economic collapse, anger over political repression and a growing rejection of the Islamic Republic's social controls, especially compulsory hijab rules.

Demonstrations that began on December 28 over currency freefall and fuel prices have tapped into grievances that surfaced in earlier protest waves in 2017-2019 and during the 2022 Mahsa Amini movement. The immediate trigger for the current unrest was a sharp slide in the rial and a rise in subsidised petrol prices in early December, which pushed up the cost of food and daily necessities for already strained households. Bazaar traders in central Tehran staged walkouts as the rial hit record lows against the US dollar, and protests quickly spread from the capital's major markets to other cities.

Years of US sanctions, state mismanagement and corruption have eroded living standards, with inflation around 40% and unemployment high among the young, turning economic complaints into broader calls for political change.

Recent protests echo and sharpen themes seen since the late 2010s, when working-class demonstrations over rising prices in 2017-2019 gradually evolved into openly anti-regime rallies.

Chants such as "Death to the dictator" and slogans criticising spending on regional proxies instead of domestic needs have become recurring features, signalling what researchers describe as a secular shift in public sentiment even in smaller towns.

The new wave since late 2025 has also been shaped by Iran's regional confrontation and security climate, including the costly conflict with Israel and the risk of wider war. Many protesters link economic hardship to foreign policy, arguing that resources devoted to military and proxy activities abroad should instead address domestic shortages, blackouts and deteriorating public services.

Disillusionment has extended to President Masoud Pezeshkian, elected in 2024 on pledges of better governance and looser internet restrictions, but now criticised by some demonstrators for failing to prevent power cuts and for presiding over a harsher security environment.

State response has followed a familiar pattern: use of security forces and Revolutionary Guard units to suppress demonstrations, combined with extensive internet shutdowns and restrictions on mobile and fixed-line communications.

Rights groups report rising arrest numbers and an execution rate that has doubled since 2022, arguing that capital punishment is being used to deter protest activity and silence dissent.

Monarchist slogans and public references to exiled crown prince Reza Pahlavi have become more visible, marking an ideological shift since earlier economic protests.

Pahlavi has used social media and foreign platforms to call for coordinated nationwide protests and present himself as a potential transitional figure, a message that has resonated with segments of the bazaar and urban middle class frustrated with both hardliners and reformists.

Past Protests

The regime has had to face multiple protests since the Shah fled into exile in 1979 and the Islamic Republic was founded. The most recent and significant was the September 2022 death of Mahsa Amini in morality police custody over alleged hijab violations. Her death turned hijab defiance into a symbol of resistance to the entire system, with women and young people playing a prominent role in protests across all provinces.

1979 Revolution Protests (1978–1979)
Nationwide protests led to the fall of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and the establishment of the Islamic Republic theocracy. Estimates suggest several thousand people were killed during clashes with security forces. After the revolution, thousands of officials from the former regime and others were executed in summary trials. Amnesty International estimated at least 4,000 executions in the immediate post-revolution period.

1999 Student Protests
The first big anti-government protests of the modern-era were sparked by the closure of the reformist Salam newspaper. Student demonstrations began in Tehran and spread to other cities. Security forces and vigilantes violently suppressed the protests. At least 7 students were killed, and over 1,000 were arrested. There are no confirmed reports of executions directly linked to the protests.

2003 Protests
Protests led by students and civil society groups focused on privatisation policies and political repression. Authorities responded with force, and several injuries were reported, but no confirmed deaths. Dozens of activists were detained, with no confirmed executions as a direct consequence.

2009 Green Movement
Following the disputed re-election of President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, protests erupted across the country. At least 72 people were killed according to opposition sources, while human rights groups believe the number may be higher. More than 4,000 were arrested. At least five people were executed in the aftermath on charges related to the unrest.

2011–2012 Protests
Inspired by the Arab Spring, small-scale protests were held in support of regional uprisings. Security forces quickly clamped down. Several people were reportedly killed or injured. Opposition leaders Mir-Hossein Mousavi and Mehdi Karroubi were placed under house arrest. No executions were officially reported in relation to these protests.

2017–2018 Protests
Protests over economic conditions began in Mashhad and spread nationwide. Official sources reported 22 deaths, while some estimates suggest up to 25. More than 3,700 were arrested. At least one person, Mohammad Salas, was executed in 2018 on charges related to the unrest, although rights groups said his trial lacked due process.

2019–2020 Fuel Price Protests
The most lethal protests since the 1999 student protests erupted after fuel subsidies were cut overnight. Amnesty International reported at least 304 deaths, though Reuters cited sources saying the death toll exceeded 1,500. Thousands were arrested, and multiple death sentences were later issued. At least 7 people were executed in connection to the protests, including protesters accused of involvement in violence.

January 2020 Protests
Triggered by the downing of Ukraine International Airlines Flight 752, these protests included chants against the Supreme Leader and the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps. There were no confirmed deaths directly attributed to these protests, but dozens were arrested. No executions were publicly linked to these events.

2021–2022 Water Shortage Protests
Protests in Khuzestan and Isfahan over water shortages and mismanagement were met with live fire and arrests. Human rights groups reported at least 8 to 10 deaths in Khuzestan and several more in Isfahan. Dozens were detained. There are no confirmed reports of executions linked to these demonstrations.

2022–2023 Mahsa Amini Protests
The most significant protests before the current mass protests broke out erupted after the death of Mahsa Amini in custody on September 16, 2022. Human rights organisations reported over 500 killed, including children. More than 20,000 were arrested. As of January 2024, at least 7 protesters had been executed following trials criticised by the UN and human rights groups for lacking judicial fairness.